Withering-type botanical microscope, 1780
The “Withering-type Microscope” is named for its inventor, Dr. William Withering (1741-1799), an English physician and botanist who graduated with a degree in medicine 1766 in Edinburgh. Inspired by the taxonomical work and systematic classification of Carl Linnæus (1707-1778), Withering (1776) applied the Linnaean taxonomical system of classification to British plants in a seminal, two volume work, A Botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in the British Isles. The earliest reference to a small botanical microscope of Withering’s design appeared in the first edition of this book. There, Withering indicated this microscope was developed for field dissections of flowers and other plant parts. While there is no surviving example of this exact design, close relatives of this type do exist, made either completely of brass or of ivory with brass pillars. Ivory models can be tentatively dated to 1776-1785, as by 1787 a newer model with a hollowed stage in an all-brass configuration already predominated. In turn, it was preceded by the brief appearance of a transitional brass model but with solid stage of ivory or horn (seen here). This version is extremely rare and must have been produced in very small numbers. By 1787 all these varieties were not recorded anymore in the literature.
Withering-type botanical microscope, 1780
The “Withering-type Microscope” is named for its inventor, Dr. William Withering (1741-1799), an English physician and botanist who graduated with a degree in medicine 1766 in Edinburgh. Inspired by the taxonomical work and systematic classification of Carl Linnæus (1707-1778), Withering (1776) applied the Linnaean taxonomical system of classification to British plants in a seminal, two volume work, A Botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in the British Isles. The earliest reference to a small botanical microscope of Withering’s design appeared in the first edition of this book. There, Withering indicated this microscope was developed for field dissections of flowers and other plant parts. While there is no surviving example of this exact design, close relatives of this type do exist, made either completely of brass or of ivory with brass pillars. Ivory models can be tentatively dated to 1776-1785, as by 1787 a newer model with a hollowed stage in an all-brass configuration already predominated. In turn, it was preceded by the brief appearance of a transitional brass model but with solid stage of ivory or horn (seen here). This version is extremely rare and must have been produced in very small numbers. By 1787 all these varieties were not recorded anymore in the literature.
References: SML: A242712; Goren 2014.
References: SML: A242712; Goren 2014.
Prof. Yuval Goren's Collection of the History of the Microscope
This website features the largest and nearly exclusive collection of historical microscopes in West Asia. It showcases over 100 historical microscopes, dating from the late 17th to the early 20th century, along with their historical and scientific context.
About myself
I am an archaeology professor specializing in microarchaeology, which involves using scientific methods to study archaeological materials. I focus on the technology and origin of archaeological ceramics using mineralogical and geochemical processes. I studied archaeology in 1981 at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Israel. Since 1989, I have worked as a petrography researcher at the Israel Antiquities Authority. I earned my doctorate from Hebrew University in Jerusalem in 1991 and became affiliated with Tel Aviv University in 1996. I served as the Chairman of the Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures and Vice Dean of the Faculty of Humanities during my time there. In 2016, I was invited to join the Department of Bible, Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies at Ben Gurion University of the Negev, where I established an international academic program to study archaeological materials and heritage sciences. I have published nearly 250 scientific articles over the past 40 years since setting up my first microarchaeological laboratory.
Apart from being an archaeologist, I'm also passionate about collecting and studying historical microscopes. I've gained extensive experience in microarchaeology over the past forty years, using microscopes every day to teach, practice, and examine. I've had to use micro-techniques in non-traditional settings, such as in the field, remote storage facilities, museums, archaeological excavations in remote locations, and other unusual situations. As part of my work and personal interest, I've researched the history of solutions developed over the past 200 years for scientists working outside their labs and have published several articles on the topic. Additionally, I've created my own field microscope, which is now patented and commercially produced, and I use it regularly for my fieldwork.
This website showcases my collection of over 100 historical microscopes, including some milestone models used by the pioneers of microscopy, microbiology, bacteriology, geology, and other scientific disciplines. It includes simple, compound pre-achromatic and achromatic landmark instruments representing the evolution of the compound microscope, and lastly, my design of a practical field microscope.
Please feel free to ask any legitimate questions or make comments.
Policy of the Descriptions and References Appearing on this Website
Scope
In the mature stage of collecting, it is important to establish goals and boundaries. At this point, a collector shifts from being a hoarder to a curator, focusing on organizing the collection. It is also a stage where the collector learns to lets irrelevant items go. During my travels around the world, I visited many collections and met countless collectors. For example, an esteemed collector from Italy impressed me when he decided to concentrate his collection on timekeeping after years of collecting primarily all kinds of early scientific instruments. He sold most of his other items and brought this aspect to a state-of-the-art level. However, some collectors I encountered tended to purchase anything without much thought, as if they were on a binge. Therefore, at a specific stage of my collecting, I defined the boundaries of interest for this collection and promptly gave up items that did not meet these criteria to make room for those that did. This collection is limited to ca. 120 items, which represent significant milestones in the history of the microscope, from its inception to the early 20th century.
Approach
As an archaeologist with an academic background in anthropology and and over forty years of experience in the scientific research of past technologies, I have authored approximately 250 scientific publications in this field. I specialize in the scientific applications of archaeology. I firmly believe that every artifact has a rich cultural, societal, economic, and historical context. This is especially true for microscopes, which continue to be seen by the general public as symbols of scientific inquiry. They also serve as a gateway to scientific education for children and as prestigious entertainment for enthusiasts.
In the historiography of the sciences, two main approaches are evident. The first is the academic approach, which traditionally focuses on the social and cultural background of scientists while paying less attention to the technical characteristics of their instruments. The second approach, more commonly associated with museum curators and collectors, emphasizes the instruments and their manufacturers, often overlooking the users and the broader social, religious, economic, and emotional contexts surrounding them. The result of these two perspectives is a distinct body of literature that rarely intersects.
Typically, the history of scientific instruments, including microscopes, is approached in a functional and catalog-based manner. However, I have developed a different perspective that examines the ideas surrounding microscopes and their users, rather than focusing solely on the instruments themselves. I view the microscope as a three-dimensional embodiment of its social and economic context, and many of my descriptions reflect this viewpoint.
I want to emphasize that engineers should avoid writing history, just as historians should not engage in engineering. This website will serve as a platform for ongoing updates and discussions on this dynamic topic.
Taxonomy
Traditionally, prototypes have been named after personal names, mainly due to the Anglocentric nature of earlier literature. However, this trend is often unnecessary and historically inaccurate. While it is appropriate to name a type after its historically recorded inventor, such as the Cuff microscope, this is rarely the case with 18th-century microscopes. Neither James Willson nor Nicolaas Hartsoeker were the inventors of the single screw-barrel microscope, Edmund Culpeper was not the first inventor of the double tripod microscope, and John Ellis had no priority with the idea of an aquatic microscope. Cary and Gould also only mterialized an existing design for their toy microscope. Therefore, it is best to avoid using human names to describe these prototypes unless there is a justifiable reason to do so.
Copyright
All the items showcased on this website are exclusively from this collection and are accompanied by my original photographs. Therefore, they are subject to copyright. Any other graphic materials that have been used are in the public domain. Non-commercial use of protos in academic publications, books, museum catalogues and other websites is normally granted free of charge after contact through the form below. In case there are any similar items in other collections, a URL link has been provided for cross-referencing purposes.