Withering-type botanical microscope, 1780
The “Withering-type Microscope” is named for its inventor, Dr. William Withering (1741-1799), an English physician and botanist who graduated with a degree in medicine 1766 in Edinburgh. Inspired by the taxonomical work and systematic classification of Carl Linnæus (1707-1778), Withering (1776) applied the Linnaean taxonomical system of classification to British plants in a seminal, two volume work, A Botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in the British Isles. The earliest reference to a small botanical microscope of Withering’s design appeared in the first edition of this book. There, Withering indicated this microscope was developed for field dissections of flowers and other plant parts. While there is no surviving example of this exact design, close relatives of this type do exist, made either completely of brass or of ivory with brass pillars. Ivory models can be tentatively dated to 1776-1785, as by 1787 a newer model with a hollowed stage in an all-brass configuration already predominated. In turn, it was preceded by the brief appearance of a transitional brass model but with solid stage of ivory or horn (seen here). This version is extremely rare and must have been produced in very small numbers. By 1787 all these varieties were not recorded anymore in the literature.
Withering-type botanical microscope, 1780
The “Withering-type Microscope” is named for its inventor, Dr. William Withering (1741-1799), an English physician and botanist who graduated with a degree in medicine 1766 in Edinburgh. Inspired by the taxonomical work and systematic classification of Carl Linnæus (1707-1778), Withering (1776) applied the Linnaean taxonomical system of classification to British plants in a seminal, two volume work, A Botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in the British Isles. The earliest reference to a small botanical microscope of Withering’s design appeared in the first edition of this book. There, Withering indicated this microscope was developed for field dissections of flowers and other plant parts. While there is no surviving example of this exact design, close relatives of this type do exist, made either completely of brass or of ivory with brass pillars. Ivory models can be tentatively dated to 1776-1785, as by 1787 a newer model with a hollowed stage in an all-brass configuration already predominated. In turn, it was preceded by the brief appearance of a transitional brass model but with solid stage of ivory or horn (seen here). This version is extremely rare and must have been produced in very small numbers. By 1787 all these varieties were not recorded anymore in the literature.
References: SML: A242712; Goren 2014.
References: SML: A242712; Goren 2014.
Prof. Yuval Goren's Collection of the History of the Microscope
Chapter 1: Spectacles as Visual Aids
Spectacles were first created in Italy in the late 1200s. The type illustrated here is known as Nuremberg spectacles, as they were likely produced in Nuremberg, Germany. These spectacles date from between 1650 and the early 1700s. They were mass-produced in Germany and traded throughout Europe.
At that time, spectacles did not yet have temples and were designed to be held or rested on the nose while in use. Although the exact date is unknown, spectacles likely began to feature temples in the early to mid-1720s, allowing wearers to avoid worrying about them falling off their faces.
During this period, spectacles were typically made of steel, but occasionally of silver or brass. They had straight temples with large rings at the ends, which could be attached to a string or ribbon. This design enabled the wearer to loop the ribbon behind their head, keeping the spectacles in place. Sometimes, wearers would wrap the rings in fabric for padding and to prevent rusting against their heads.
Early lenses were often made of glass or, less commonly, rock crystal, which was also known as "pebble" lenses. Rock crystal was considered superior because it was harder than glass and did not contain bubbles, a common flaw in many glass lenses of that era.
Between the years 1000 and 1250, the development of crude mechanical grinding technology led to the creation of rock crystal reading stones, which served as simple magnifiers. This advancement in stone grinding particularly flourished around monasteries. The English Franciscan friar Roger Bacon (1220-1292) noted in his 1268 work, 'Opus Majus,' that letters appeared larger and clearer when viewed through a plano-convex lens, a type of lens that is less than half a sphere. Bacon's experiments confirmed the principle of the convex lens, a concept previously described by Alhazen (965-1038), the "Father of Modern Optics," an Arabian mathematician, optician, and astronomer based in Cairo, as well as by Greek scholars before him. Bacon recognized that these lenses could assist individuals with weak eyesight or age-related vision problems, such as presbyopia. This realization indicated that the issues faced by older individuals regarding their vision were not strictly medical but could be improved through the use of optical lenses.
It is not surprising that the development of spectacles gained momentum in regions where glass objects were being produced. At that time, Venice, specifically the island of Murano, emerged as one of the most advanced centers for the medieval glass industry, with its guild of crystal workers officially established in November 1284. During this period, ordinary “white glass” (cristallum) was first developed, distinguishing it from naturally occurring rock crystal. Cristallum was much easier to work with than the hard natural rock crystal. In one of the guild’s earliest regulations, adopted in April 1300, the organization coined the term for eye discs, referring to them as "roidi da ogli" or "vetri da occhi."
However, by the mid-fifteenth century, the city of Florence had become a leading innovator in the production, sale, and dissemination of spectacles, both within Italy and beyond. Documents from the dukes of Milan, Francesco and Galeazzo Maria Sforza, dated 1462 and 1466, respectively, provide the first detailed information about spectacles since their invention. The large number of spectacles circulating in northwest Europe, particularly in London, during the 14th century was mass-produced in the Low Countries and began to be manufactured in England in the 15th century. Other production centers, such as Germany, France, and the Netherlands, appeared in historical references more frequently by the sixteenth century, but they did not produce anything close to the volume of documentation from Florence until well into the seventeenth century.
The 15th century was pivotal time for the evolution of spectacles. By the time Gutenberg introduced the printing press around 1450, glasses already in use among artisans, monks, and religious scholars With the advent of books for the general public, the demand for spectacles surged, leading to their widespread popularity. By the early 16th century spectacle sellers became a familiar sight in Western Europe, offering baskets filled with German-made, single-wire metal and leather-framed glasses for vision improvement. Buyers would try on various pairs before choosing their favorites. In Nuremberg, Germany, an industry to emerge as mass production lowered costs, though often resulted in a decrease in quality. During time, lenses were crafted from plain window glass, with concave used for presbyopia lenses and cannonballs reshaping flat surfaces for myopia lenses. Initially, spectacles struggled stay in place, as the 15th and 16th-century designs were often riveted hand-held. This evolved into the more comfortable specs, but without side arms, was a persistent issue until Edward Scarlett, a London optician active from 1677 to 1743, introduced the concept of temples. Although it remains unpro that he was the true inventor, Scarlett is recognized as the first spectacle maker to advertise temple spectacles featuring spiral ends, with his trade card being earliest known illustration. In England, particularly between 175 and 1790, Benjamin Martin popularized "Martin Margins," Visual Glasses he developed in 1756 to protect eyes from excessive light by reducing the lens aperture with a horn annulus. These glasses were discussed in hisEssay on Visual Glasses" and remained in vogue during the Revolutionary War, though interested by the early th century.