Withering-type botanical microscope, 1780
The “Withering-type Microscope” is named for its inventor, Dr. William Withering (1741-1799), an English physician and botanist who graduated with a degree in medicine 1766 in Edinburgh. Inspired by the taxonomical work and systematic classification of Carl Linnæus (1707-1778), Withering (1776) applied the Linnaean taxonomical system of classification to British plants in a seminal, two volume work, A Botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in the British Isles. The earliest reference to a small botanical microscope of Withering’s design appeared in the first edition of this book. There, Withering indicated this microscope was developed for field dissections of flowers and other plant parts. While there is no surviving example of this exact design, close relatives of this type do exist, made either completely of brass or of ivory with brass pillars. Ivory models can be tentatively dated to 1776-1785, as by 1787 a newer model with a hollowed stage in an all-brass configuration already predominated. In turn, it was preceded by the brief appearance of a transitional brass model but with solid stage of ivory or horn (seen here). This version is extremely rare and must have been produced in very small numbers. By 1787 all these varieties were not recorded anymore in the literature.
Withering-type botanical microscope, 1780
The “Withering-type Microscope” is named for its inventor, Dr. William Withering (1741-1799), an English physician and botanist who graduated with a degree in medicine 1766 in Edinburgh. Inspired by the taxonomical work and systematic classification of Carl Linnæus (1707-1778), Withering (1776) applied the Linnaean taxonomical system of classification to British plants in a seminal, two volume work, A Botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in the British Isles. The earliest reference to a small botanical microscope of Withering’s design appeared in the first edition of this book. There, Withering indicated this microscope was developed for field dissections of flowers and other plant parts. While there is no surviving example of this exact design, close relatives of this type do exist, made either completely of brass or of ivory with brass pillars. Ivory models can be tentatively dated to 1776-1785, as by 1787 a newer model with a hollowed stage in an all-brass configuration already predominated. In turn, it was preceded by the brief appearance of a transitional brass model but with solid stage of ivory or horn (seen here). This version is extremely rare and must have been produced in very small numbers. By 1787 all these varieties were not recorded anymore in the literature.
References: SML: A242712; Goren 2014.
References: SML: A242712; Goren 2014.
Prof. Yuval Goren's Collection of the History of the Microscope
Prologue: Science and Microscopy in Victorian England
In the 18th century, there was a significant increase in invention, discovery, and development across various fields of science. Natural laws and progress gained more acceptance among the general public, and there was growing interaction between science, government, and industry. Science education became more formalized, and internationalism in science became more prevalent. The authority of science in contexts shaped by the Industrial Revolution and the sweeping social and cultural changes of the century also began to take shape. This led to the emergence of a new professionalism in science, with natural philosophy and natural history transforming into "science," and naturalists becoming professional scientists. In 1833, William Whewell coined the term "scientist" to distinguish what he and his colleagues were engaged in from philosophy. The Victorian era, to which Whewell belonged, also saw fundamental transformations in beliefs about nature and humans' place in the universe.
In the field of microscopy, there was a growing demand for better instruments, leading to innovations in machine tooling and greatly improved design and construction of the microscope's mechanical elements. As a result, many well-crafted instruments appeared. The first part of the 19th century also witnessed dramatic improvements in optics with the introduction of achromatic objectives. Lens systems were becoming perfected for use in exploring the microscopic world.
The microscope seen here is signed on the folding tripod base 'Schmalcalder 82 Strand London'. Charles Augustus Schmalcalder (1781 - 1843) was an inventor and optical instrument maker. He is famous for inventing the prismatic compass, which he made with great workmanship. He was born Karl August Schmalkalder in Stuttgart, Germany. He came to England in about 1800, where he worked in partnership with his son John Thomas Schmalcalder. On his retirement in 1839 the business was continued by his son (britishmuseum.org). Schmalcalder the elder worked in London at 6 Little Newport St. (1806-7), Strand (1812), 82 Strand (1810-26) & 399 Strand (1827-40) (collection.sciencemuseum).
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Schmalcalder Most Improved Microscope, 1810-26
This is the larger of two versions of a form of microscope, made (or rather, retailed) by C.A. Schmalcalder to a pattern called after W. & S. Jones. It was based on the 'Universal Compound Microscope', devised by George Adams Jr. and described in his 1787 book Essays on the Microscope. This was, in turn, inspired by Benjamin Martin's 'Universal Microscope' of the second half of the 18th century. After George Adams' death in 1795, his firm was continued by his brother, Dudley Adams. Within a few years, however, William and Samuel Jones bought the copyright to Adams' books, stock and workshop instruments. Hence, Adams' microscope was renamed 'W. & S. Jones Most Improved' and advertised as such in 1798. It was the best microscope of the pre-achromatic era, which summarized in a way the structural evolution of the English microscope over the length of the 18th century. However, it was far from perfection and extremely expensive, and with the introduction of the achromatic objective it was replaced by Lister-limb and Bar-limb microscopes.
The 'Jones Most Improved' model was most likely the first microscope type to be employed for serious research in geology, chrystallography and optical mineralogy.
Selected references: MHS 35727,